The purpose of Criminal Law Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The purpose of Criminal Law - Assignment Example Antitrust laws are designed to reduce anti-competitive behavior and encourage competition in the market. These laws prevent business enterprises from becoming too powerful to the extent of controlling market prices and restricting entry by other players. However, there are industries and activities that are exempt from the U.S antitrust laws. Labor unions, for example, are exempt from antitrust laws, which make all the activities by labor unions exempt from these laws. Sports as well as healthcare are also exempt from these laws. These exemptions apply because these industries and activities would be negatively affected if they were subjected to antitrust laws (Broder, 2012). Suretyship agreements are legally binding contracts where the signee accepts responsibility for another individual’s obligation. This obligation is often a loan and the signee agrees to pay the loan if the borrower defaults in making payments. A contract of suretyship must relate to the principal contract and the signee must have capacity to contract. The surety is discharged when the principal is discharged from the obligation. These agreements are meant to reduce the risk to the lender in case the borrower defaults in making payments (Kubasek et al.,

Substance Abuse - Alcohol and Drugs Essay Example for Free

Substance Abuse Alcohol and Drugs Essay World Health Organization has played a huge role in the management of substance abuse and its prevention especially among the vulnerable groups. It has supported countries to reduce and prevent problems caused by the use of psychoactive substances in terms of regulations and policy implementation. Its main mandate is to; â€Å"recommend reduction and prevention mechanisms which can able to prevent relapse and assess substance that highly contribute to relapse hence able to advise the U.N on what regulations to pursue†. The department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse under it has been mandated to overlook issues of curbing relapse and also substance abuse in general (Laws and Ward, 2000). The World Health Organization (WHO) defines substance abuse as â€Å"the harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive substances which include illicit drugs and alcohol†. A prolonged or repeated use of such substances can lead to addiction which is usually evident with continued use of the substances despite the fact that physical and mental deterioration is being noticed. In fact, various researchers in the world have come up with different conclusions and suggestions regarding the causes, effects, solutions and recommendations on how to deal with substance abuse (Laws and Ward, 2000). Substance abuse is a global issue. Reports reveal that the illegal drug business accounts for $400 billion of world trade, and is second only to the worldwide arms market, it is larger than the global iron and steel industries.(Cherry, Dillon, and Rugh, 2002) The 2000 World Drug Report noted that there were at least 180 million drug abusers globally, including 9 million heroin addicts, 29 million amphetamine users, and 14 million cocaine users (ODCCP, 2000)(Cherry, Dillon, and Rugh, 2002). Untreated cases of substance abuse, addiction and relapse add significant effects to communities and families. â€Å"The main effects that can be immediately noticed are; property and violence crimes, criminal and court related costs, health care utilization costs, lack of child support, prison   expenses for the government, welfare and foster care costs, child abuse, unemployment and emergency room visits† (Marks, A. Donovan, 2005). Treatment options Scientific research which has been conducted in the past have shown that effective treatment from substance abuse can help people completely recover from destructive behaviors after undoing   treatment or recovery process from substance abuse. People can successfully remove themselves from a life of substance abuse through effective treatment and long-term commitments. It includes the following; Pharmacotheraphies To a greater or lesser extent, certain drugs and alcohols have been developed and manufactured to assist in solving issues of relapse. They include opioid medications such as methadone, buprenorphine, morphine, oxycodone etc. which have been used as remedies of relapse. One of the most successful ones include bogaine which, according to medics, can help reduce the temptation of going back to substance abuse and is specifically suited for narcotics and alcohol. It is believed to interrupt  Ã‚   both psychological cravings and physical dependence on stimulants, nicotine and alcohol. Other antidepressants are able to moderate substance use particularly narcotics. All these Pharmacotheraphies have helped in the reduction of addiction and relapse of substance abuse for all genders. Rehabilitation Most of the judicial systems have been able to convict substance abusers to rehabilitation programs and to cope with withdrawal symptoms. The detoxification process of addiction involves the abrupt cessation of drug use and physical tolerance of the temptation. Medics promote the use of rehabilitation strategies to minimize effects of relapse since it is a slow but sure process of withdrawal. The method involves the use of psychological dependency which attempts to teach and train the victim new methods of freely interacting with a drug-free environment and avoid relapse. Isolation of victims or patients of relapse from people who are still substance abusers is very important as it prevents them from admiring the practice. In some organizations, moderations are utilized to allow substance abusers to re-examine their habits and compare themselves before and after stopping the practice. Many other programs utilize rehabilitation initiatives to make their initiatives more effective (Pham-Kanter, 2001). Justice systems Drug involved offenders have frequently been cycled through the judicial system whereby the substance abusers have become common to probation officers and police officers. This is an evidence that relapse is common and that the judicial system is doing very little to address it. As jails, prisons, juvenile detention centers and other correctional facilities get congested, all stakeholders in the medical field are examining newer solutions to prevent relapse. One of them is the criminal justice settings where substance abusers who are most likely to be criminals are only allowed to re-enter back into the community when they have completely recovered from substance abuse and are not likely to be affected by relapse. Relapse Prevention Therapy RPT was originally designed as a maintenance program for replace victims. It entails treatment of addictive behaviors which is used as stand-alone program that in most cases is designed to teach individuals to try and maintain changes initiated in the treatment process. Every individual has an effective response system to cope with incidences of high risk situations but the problem is the guts to do so. Post-implementation survey on suitability of RPT has shown that relapse had decreased significantly as a result of the program. RPT strategies are categorized to three groups; lifestyle modification, coping skills training and cognitive therapies. All of these strategies round up to both cognitive and behavioral techniques and approaches that provide victims of relapse with ways to reframe their habits once more and change processes in learning experiences with setbacks on how they can meet challenges of recovery. Life modifications strategies include; exercise, spiritual practices, meditation among others (Pham-Kanter, 2001). Side Effects of Addiction The most common side effect of substance abuse i.e. alcohol and drug is what is termed as substance relapse. Relapse is a situation of ‘converting back’ from a condition after a short or long abstinences. In drug addiction and substance abuse, it can be defined as â€Å"the resumption of the use of drugs after leaving it for some time† that is according to World Health Organization in the year 2004 (Laws and Ward, 2000). Substance abuse relapse is a condition where one feels to have failed to recover fully from addiction to drugs or substance abuse despite the fact that they have gone under a professional recovery plan. It means that individuals are tempted to use the drugs even after they have undergone a medical response process. Relapse to substance abuse is a common problem that can have devastating effects on the victim especially physical and emotional impacts. It requires good communication and counseling between the counselor and the patient. Recovery from substance abuse especially is not a complete failure to eradication but a step further; in real sense, a positive way to strengthen the process of recovery that is difficult to address given the complexity nature of the issue. There are three ways of severity of relapse which is normally used to determine the most suitable medical or counseling response. The first level is slip where the victim briefly resumes drug use but have no signs of drug dependence or symptoms of addiction.   The second level is several level of drug abuse. This is the most severe form because the victim resumes substance abuse for several days during the treatment process. This should be used as a learning process where the patient should learn from experience and prevent further relapse. The last level is the sustained drug use evidenced by resumption of addiction. The victims of substance abuse fully relapse to addiction and eventually drops out treatment and those medics and counselors need to start from scratch (Marks, A. Donovan, 2005). The Relapse Process Any use of a substance after a period of abstinence is a measure of the relapse rates. Previous research has indicated that temporal patterning of the relapse process and that the circumstances under which the process occurs across all the genders is under is difficult to comprehend especially by unprofessional persons and the victims themselves. Hence the commonalities across all substance abusers are an indication of the relapse rates and it involves a sense of perceived control and self-efficacy (Marks, A. Donovan, 2005).       Reference Cherry, A, Dillon, M, Rugh, D (2002): Substance abuse a global view. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press Laws, D. Ward, T. (2000): Remaking relapse prevention with sex offenders: The sourcebook. Newbury Park, CA; Sage Publications Marks, A. Donovan, D. (2005): Relapse prevention; Maintenance strategies in the treatment of addictive behaviors (2nd Ed.). New York: Guilford Press Pham-Kanter, G. (2001): Substance abuse and dependence. The Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine Second Edition Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group,

Importance of Group Work in the ESL Classroom

Importance of Group Work in the ESL Classroom Introduction The field of Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) is a rapidly expanding area within UK settings, in state-funded and in private educational arenas, and because of the changing nature of immigration, ESOL teachers are challenged with meeting the demands of diverse and complicated ethnic/linguistic groups (Chan, 1998). Learning English is seen as a necessity for immigrants or long term visitors to the UK, although the field is complicated by political debates and social discussions around funding, socialisation, naturalisation and the erosion of traditional cultures and languages. However, it does seem that language fluency in English is key to proper integration into British society, and is supported by the â€Å"UK Government’s policy response to refugees and asylum seekers [as] outlines in the White Paper Secure Borders, Safe Haven: Integration and Diversity in Modern Britain (Home Office, 2002) [which] set out proposals for a curriculum of English languag e, IT and citizenship classes for refugees and asylum seekers† (Morrice (2007) p 156). While the Therefore, it is essential that ESOL provision is not only provided, but is designed in ways which can encourage learners to acquire real proficiency and fluency, without disempowering people or undermining their nationality (Halliday, 2005). The literature on the pedagogies of ESOL teaching is diverse and outlines ways in which second language acquisition can be facilitated effectively, with teachers having their own take on pedagogy and on the ways in which students work, alone or with each other, in learning English (Dagenais et al, 2008; Burns, 2006). While linguistics studies directly address issues of grammar, syntax, construction, coherence and cohesion, the more practical aspects of developing practical fluency in English for speakers of other languages relate to classroom strategies that can support this. This essay will explore two aspects of ESOL teaching, that of group work, in which ESOL students are encouraged to work together on key tasks, with the aim of improving fluency (Haneda, 2005), and the provision of feedback, either peer feedback or tutor feedback, to enhance fluency. Both are contentious issues, because they can spell difficulties in the management of learning experiences (Holliday, 2005), and co uld be seen positively or negatively. This essay will look at some of the literature on this subject, and attempt to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of group or collaborative work, and of different types of feedback. The author will then draw conclusions from the literature to inform ESOL teaching practice. Discussion Group work is a popular means of building on constructivist theories and pedagogies by supporting students to apply new knowledge in given situations. In ESOL teaching, it provides opportunities to practice new words, conversations, sentence constructions, and functional elements of communication, such as making a particular type of telephone call or initiating a conversation. However, group work in this context can be viewed negatively as well, partly because of a fear that groups with the same first language will simply lapse into their own tongue rather than always speaking English, and that as learners they will not recognise each other’s mistakes. The latter point will be dealt with in some more detail below, in the exploration of types of feedback. But in relation to group work, types of collaborative or group learning or practice have been shown to be of great benefit to students of English. Some authors have found that pair work or small group work in this context does help improve language fluency and competence (Long, 1996; Pica et al, 1996), perhaps because these activities provide different opportunities and options for ESOL learners which are not possible during teacher-led activities. These students may find themselves able to become more confident in a setting which is not only smaller, but comprises only peers who are also ESOL students. Johnson 91995) argues that learners who interact and engage with each other in these ways feel more self-efficacy and control over their own learning. However, others argue that small group work in peer-only groups does not necessarily help with issues such as pronunciation (Morley, 1991) and proper grammar (Widodo, 2006; Widdowson, 1978). Another particular issue for group work is that of English intonation, which can be particularly difficult and may represent for some the last hurdle of English fluency and comprehension (Atoy e, 2005; Morgan, 1997). McDonough (2004) carried out a small-scale research study which â€Å"explored instructors and learners perceptions about the use of pair and small group activities in a Thai EFL context, and examined whether the learning opportunities theoretically attributed to pair and small group activities occurred in an intact classroom† (p 207). The study also looked at whether the learners showed improved outcomes (McDonough, 2004). McDonough (2004) found that â€Å"learners who had more participation during the pair and small group activities demonstrated improved production of the target forms, even though they did not perceive the activities as useful for learning language† (p 207). This would suggest that these activities might improve elements of fluency and skill, but this study does not demonstrate how this occurs, nor does it look in detail at language fluency, which is our concern here. Li and Campbell (2008) carried out a study in New Zealand which  examined â€Å"Asian students perceptions of the much-promulgated cooperative learning concepts in the form of group work and group assignments†, and â€Å"found that Asian students valued highly the significance of classroom group discussions where they could interact with students from other cultures and backgrounds, improve their English-language skills, enhance their cultural understanding and provide them with opportunities to make friends† (P 203). Again, this underlines social elements of group working in ESOL learning which may be important in developing true fluency, because the elements of language skills and enhancing cultural understanding can be related to development of deeper-level fluency. Not all the outcomes of this study were positive, however, and LI and Campbell (2008) also found that these Asian students â€Å"held intensely negative views about group assignments that required stud ents to complete a project as a group with shared marks determined by the performance of the group† (p 207). This may have something to do with the learner orientations of these students, or it may have to do with other factors. Li and Campbell (2008) found that â€Å"contributing factors affecting group dynamics included members attitudes and willingness to cooperate and contribute as a team, the composition of the group, students competing demands on students time and attention, heterogeneity from the natural abilities of students, and the varying cultural values and beliefs held by group members† (p 207). Because Li and Campbell (2008) found that group assignments that were assessed seemed to disempower the students in their study, it would suggest that group activities which are collaborative have a different meaning than group activities which are assessed, and this should be taken into account when applying group working to ESOL classrooms. However, the study does suggest the group learning itself enhanced competency level (Li and Campbell, 2008). The negative responses to the group assessment activities may have had something to do with students’ preconceptions or expectations about their ESOL learning (Bordia et al, 2006). Expectations which are not fulfilled might negatively affect responses to and evaluations of these learning activities (Bordia et al, 2006). These expectations, of course, may originate in the background, culture and previous experiences of the learner, which would suggest that teachers need to take into account these kinds of expectations and find ways to address them. Ewal (2004) describes a study which focuses on the student perspective on group work, in which â€Å"21 students and their teachers participated in a collaborative forum in which they explored the use of small group work in their L2 classroom.† (p 163). This study found that by engaging students, in an almost metacognitive way, in learning about how the group work affected their learning and behaviour, the students were able to discover the benefits of group work for themselves, in improving their literacy and fluency, and in supporting peer bonding, confidence and self-efficacy (Ewal, 2004). In this study, small group behaviours changed as the students became aware of these behaviours and of the functions of the group and the class as a whole (Ewal, 2004). This demonstrates that while group work is still viewed along pedagogical lines as a requisite of proper learning, through application and testing of knowledge, the dynamics of group work require some attention, and may act as militating or mediating factors in the effectiveness of group activities. Ewal (2004) concludes that â€Å"teachers should be attentive to opportunities to discuss language learning and classroom-related issues with their students† (p 175). This adds an extra dimension to the concept of group work, as functioning for students on many levels, not simply on a praxis/practice level. Of course, the discussion of group work leads us neatly into the concept of peer feedback, which is connected to the theories on group activities and just as contentious, it seems. Rollinson (2005) shows how although peer feedback has been supported in ESL classrooms, teachers and students are less than convinced of its efficacy and usefulness. Rollinson (2005) argues that proper training and procedures for peer feedback in ESOL classrooms is the key to making such feedback effective. Hu (2005) seems to echo this, that peer feedback can enhance learning, but does acknowledge that these activities need monitoring and that peer review situations can be problematic. Feedback and review of English language proficiency can be formalised into learning activities in the classroom context. Al-Hazmi and Scholfield (2007) describe an action research study which was aimed at improving English language writing proficiency in Saudi Arabian university students. This study involved â€Å"a regime of enforced draft revision, using a checklist† in which two groups were involved, one trained in peer revision, the other doing their own revision (Al-Hazmi and Scholfield, 2007 p 237). These authors found that â€Å"there were clear draft improvements in quality, especially in mechanics, despite only modest amounts of meaning-changing an d multisentential revisions being recorded† Al-Hazmi and Scholfield, 2007 p 237). The most significant finding from this study demonstrated that the students enjoyed and responded positively to peer review (Al-Hazmi and Scholfield, 2007). This may simply underline the fact that language learning is as much a social as an individual process (Dagenais et al, 2008; Roberts and Baynham, 2006; Schellekens, 2007) Formal tutor feedback is also an essential component of developing fluency, although again, the form that this takes can affect its value. Hyland and Hyland (2006), for example, agree that feedback is vital in terms of encouraging learning and consolidating that learning, and demonstrate that it is used in process-based classrooms and in genre-orientated learning environments. It may seem obvious to some that tutor feedback is important, but teachers and learners should be aware that feedback has different purposes, as well as different forms, and while it can be difficult for some students to assimilate feedback and correction, it is through signposting mistakes as well as successes that students can learn how much they have learned. Feedback itself has expanded to encompass not only written comments from the teacher, but language workshops, conferences and even electronic feedback (Hyland and Hyland, 2006). Lyster and Mori (2006) examined the effects of explicit correction, recasts, and prompts on learner uptake and repair, and found that â€Å"instructional activities and interactional feedback that act as a counterbalance to a classrooms predominant communicative orientation are likely to prove more effective than instructional activities and interactional feedback that are congruent with its predominant communicative orientation† (p 269). This suggests that feedback must be specific to the task and to the context, and also that there is a need for a deeper understanding of the pedagogical dimensions of formal tutor feedback, and the purpose that this feedback serves. This also shows that the emergence of the communicative classroom is not necessarily the final evolution of the ESOL context (Campbell an d Duncan, 2007). However, there are those who have argued strongly against written feedback, and the trends in ESOL teaching in recent years has been to avoid this (Bitchener, 2008). However, research by Bitchener (2008) shows that in some cases, written feedback enhances learning: The study found that the accuracy of students who received written corrective feedback in the immediate post-test outperformed those in the control group and that this level of performance was retained 2 months later. Bitchener 2008 p 102. This would seem to suggest that there is value in providing written tutor feedback. Lochtman (2002) also shows the value of oral or verbal feedback, but underlines the need to give different kinds of feedback depending on the language learning context, the task, and the learner, suggesting that while this feedback is beneficial, it is only so if it meets the needs of the individual learner. One of the issues with fluency is also related to currency (Taylor, 2006), and it could be that the provision of both types of feedback is central to understanding the current use of various idiomatic forms as well as of slang and vernacular. While many ESOL teaching contexts shy away from teaching ‘common’ spoken forms and focus on formal, correct English, feedback from a tutor, for example, can help to draw comparisons between the two forms and allow students to develop awareness of when it is appropriate to use the different types of English expression (Taylor, 2006; Wallace, 2006). This ability to speak fluently is much more complex than simply learning linguistic form, it is about attaining a degree of comfort and ease with using the language, and using it appropriately and ‘naturally’. All of these approaches to supporting language learning could be said to be fostering this development, but only if they are properly planned, and managed, and it seems that quality ‘teaching’ and facilitation is still required. Conclusion This essay demonstrates that there is a range of literature to support the development of language fluency in ESOL classrooms through group work and through interactive processes of learning, and through the provision of tutor feedback and peer feedback. There are issues and challenges with ESOL learning in relation to developing verbal skills, because verbal language requires real-time interaction and the ability to respond to different cues and situations. It would seem from the literature cited above that the use of group work in ESOL learning needs to be planned carefully and designed to ensure that learning is not impeded by individual differences or by the negative aspects of group work, including frustration between learners with different levels of competency, and difficulties in group work which is assessed formally. Collaborative learning may be a strength in developing fluency, and this could be incorporated with peer feedback, but it would seem that this is only truly effective if the students are ‘trained’ and supported in giving feedback to ensure it is fair and an constructive, and given in the appropriate spirit. Similarly, it would seem that feedback may assist in developing fluency, but the literature cited does not provide strong or conclusive evidence that formal feedback is good for this, despite its value in developing written and verbal language skills. More research is required in looking at different kinds of feedback in supporting fluency. However, the literature does indicate that feedback must be individualised and meet the needs of the learner. References Al-Hazmi, S.H. and Scholfield, P. (2007) Enforced revision with checklist and peer feedback in EFL writing: the example of Saudi university students. Scientific Journal of King Faisal University (Humanities and Management Sciences 18 (2)237-267. Atoye, R.O. (2005) Non-native perception of English intonation. Nordic Journal of African Studies14 (1) 26-42. Bitchener, J. (2008) Evidence in support of written corrective feedback Journal of Second Language Writing 17 (2) 102-118. Brillinger, K. (2003) From Theory to Practice: Creating Intermediate ESL Reading Materials Based on Current SLA Research and Theories, Newsletter of the Association of Teachers of English as a Second Language of Ontario, 29(3), 1-6 Burns, A. (2006) Surveying landscapes in adult ESOL research, Linguistics and Education, 17, 97–105 Campbell, C. and Duncan, G. (2007) From Theory to Practice: General Trends in Foreign Language Teaching Methodology and Their Influence on Language Assessment. Language and Linguistics Compass 1 (6) 592-611 Chan, M..M. (1998) What We Already Know about Teaching ESL Writers (Research in the Classroom). English Journal 77 (6) 84-85 Chen, R. and Hird, B. (2006) Group Work in the Efl Classroom in China: A Closer Look. RELC Journal, 37 (10) 91-103. Dagenais, D. Beynon, J. and Mathis, N. (2008) Intersections of Social Cohesion, Education, and Identity in Teachers, Discourses, and Practices Pedagogies: An International Journal 3 (2) 85 – 108. Ewald, J.D. (2004) A classroom forum on small group work: L2 learners see, and change, themselves. Language Awareness 13 (3) 163-179. Ferris, D.R. (1994) Lexical and syntactic features of ESL writing by students at different levels of L2 proficiency. TESOL Quarterly 28 (2) 414-420. Haneda,. M. (2005) Some Functions of Triadic Dialogue in the Classroom: Examples from L2 Research Canadian Modern Language Review 62 (2) 313-333 Hyland, K. and Hyland, F (2006). Feedback on second language students writing. Language Teaching, 39 83-101. Holliday, A. (2005) The Struggle to Teach English as an International Language New York: Oxford University Press. Hu, G. (2005) Using peer review with Chinese ESL student writers. Language Teaching Research 9 (3) 321-342. Johnson,K.E. (1995) Understanding communication in second language classrooms New York: Cambridge University Press. Lochtman, K. (2002) Oral corrective feedback in the foreign language classroom: how it affects interaction in analytic foreign language teaching International Journal of Educational Research 37 (3-4) 271-283. Long, M. (1996) The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In Ritchie, W. and Bhatia, T. (eds) Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (413-468) San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Lyster, R. and Mori, H. (2006). Interactional Feedback And Instructional Counterbalance. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 28 , 269-300 McDonough, K. (2004) Learner-learner interaction during pair and small group activities in a Thai EFL context System 32 (2) 207-224 Morgan, B. (1997) Identity and intonation: linking dynamic processes in an ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly 31 (3) 431-450. Morley, J. (1991) The pronunciation component in teaching English to speaker sof other languages. TESOL Quarterly Morrice, L. (2007) Lifelong learning and the social integration of refugees in the UK: the significance of social capital, International Journal of Lifelong Education, 26(2), 155-172 Olivo, W. (2003) Quit Talking and Learn English!: Conflicting Language Ideologies in an ESL Classroom Anthropology Education Quarterly  34 (1) 50-71 Pica, T., Lincoln-Porter, F., Paninos, D. and Linnell, J. (1996) Language learners’ interaction: how does it address the input, output and feedback needs of L2 learners? TESOL Quarterly 30 59-84. Roberts, C. Baynham, M. (2006) Introduction to the special issue: Research in adult ESOL, Linguistics and Education, 17, 1-5 Rollinson, P. (2005) Using peer feedback in the ESL writing class ELT Journal Volume 59/1 ELT Journal 59 (1) . Schellekens, P. (2007) The Oxford ESOL Handbook Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seedhouse, P. (2005) Conversation Analysis and language learning. Language Teaching (2005), 38: 165-187 Cambridge University Press Shin, H. (2006) Rethinking TESOL From a SOLs Perspective: Indigenous Epistemology and Decolonizing Praxis in TESOL Critical Inquiry in Language Studies 3 (23) 147 – 167. Taylor, L. (2006) The changing landscape of English: implications for language assessment ELT Journal 60(1):51-60 Wallace, C. (2006) The text, dead or alive: Expanding textual repertoires in the adult ESOL classroom, Linguistics and Education, 17, 74-90 Widdowson, H.G. (1978) Teaching language as communication Oxford: Oxford University Press. Widodo, H.P. (2006) Approaches and procedures for teaching grammar. English Teaching: Practice and Critique. 5 (1) 122-141. Zamel, V. and Spack, R. (2006) Teaching Multilingual Learners across the Curriculum: Beyond the ESOL Classroom and Back Again. Journal of Basic Writing (CUNY), 25 (2) 126-152.

The Contributions of the Iroquois Essay -- Native Americans Indian Tri

The Contributions of the Iroquois The Native American Indian tribe called the Iroquois contributed greatly toward America. They have many stories about the world, and how things came to be the way they are. They have one story about the creation of the world. They use oral traditional elements in this story which is represented by nature. They also use a romantic aspect, which is represented by God’s and the super natural. In the beginning there were two worlds. The lower world, and the upper world. Everything existed in total darkness. The upper world was to hold mankind, and the lower world was where all of the monsters lived. A woman gave birth too twins. One twin was the good mind and the other was the evil mind. The good mind wanted to continue with creation, while the evil mind wanted the world to remain in it’s natural state of darkness. The good mind creates rivers, creeks, bushes, animals, and humans. This brings the oral traditional elements of their respect for nature. Mountains and valleys were created. The good mind kept destroying what ever he created for fear it was not perfect. Traces of animals from the beginning of time were left in the rocks known as fossils. The moon and the sun were created. Both the good and the evil mind attempted to create mankind. When the evil mind tries to create mankind he messes up and accidentally creates apes. When the evil mind is unable to create mankind as the good mind does, he becomes angry with him. The twin...

Complex Project Management: Historical Background, Problems and Approaches Essay

Managing a project that has cross-cultural team members is a very involving task, which calls for application of appropriate leadership styles and approaches (Arbaugh, 2007, p. 569). The applicability of theories, models and approaches of management in the Belbin Consultancy Project can be deeply elaborated with clarity, to demonstrate the understanding of the topic. Since managing and leading cross-cultural teams in such projects does not just happen, as the monitor and shaper, I comprehensively applied the necessary aspects of leadership and management as I deemed appropriate. Below is a presentation of the report of Belbin Consultancy Project that my team and I, as the monitor and shaper, undertook. Project management             Project management is a comprehensive undertaking by project managers which involves several steps from inception to completion, and which guarantees the success of the project (Klimenko, 2014, p. 13). As I experienced during the Belbin Project execution, these activities have to be carefully organized and precisely planned for execution. Project Processes             During the management of the project, I applied 5 fundamental processes as shown in the appendix 1. The first process was initiation, which involved determining the nature and range of the project (Daft & Lane, 2005, p. 337). All the requirements ranging from analysis, goal setting, current operations review and feasibility were considered at this stage. The second process that we carried out was planning which involved the setting of appropriate time for each activity, considering the costs involved and the resources required. We also did a risk planning activity that was geared towards tackling uncertainties. The third process was executing, which involved following all the activities of the project as outlined during the planning stage. This was geared towards meeting all the set deadlines of the set milestones. The fourth process involved monitoring the progress and controlling the execution, noting of any deviations from the plan and taking the appropriate managerial actions (Stewart and Powell, 2004, p. 37). At this stage, I verified and validated the activities and their execution as per the allocated resources and timelines. It is at this stage that the quality of the activities that different team members were involved in was considered. The last process of the project involved the closing out of the project after its completion (Xie and Zhang, 2013, p. 725). The final product that the team developed was accepted having delivered to the best of our ability. Management Approaches             For effective execution of the processes mentioned above, I applied several management approaches. These approaches assisted in carrying out the processes in a planned manner, towards realizing the requirements. The first approach I utilized was the traditional method, which involved the execution of all the processes in a sequence. In this approach, some processes were recursively extended to support the cycle of development of the project (Collyer & Warren, 2009 p. 359). The second approach was event chain approach, which involved the identification and management of proceedings and the chains of proceedings attached to the project schedule. This approach helped me in managing the negative effects, and allowed for modeling of uncertainties that were foreseeable as was outlined in the project schedule (Symonds, 2014, p. 2). The third approach was scrum methodology, whose goal was to improve the productivity of the team by removing every possible hurdle. The fourth methodology was crystal approach in which I directed the team away from focusing on the processes. It was thus crucial to focus more on the skills of the team members, interactions, communication and people. This way, every member was able to deliver in their allocated part. Organizing and Structuring Teamwork             At this stage, the central focus is given on the capabilities of team members. As defined by Scarnati (2001. P. 5), teamwork is a cooperative procedure that assists normal people to accomplish surprising results. It, therefore, called for effective allocation of tasks on individual members. We generated a commitment oath of the team and developed shared goals. The team focused on providing quality results as opposed to achieving individual personal satisfaction that might have interfered with the achievement of objectives. Similarly, I facilitated and nurtured positive relationships that were cooperative as a way of motivating the team members towards achieving the final goal. The issues of interdependence among the team members were put into consideration (Schneider & Barsoux, 2003, p. 137). The creation of a positive attitude in the members through inspiring examples was thus vital. When experiencing difficulties, team members were enthusiastic to help out their peers, regardless of their backgrounds (Symonds, 2014, p. 2). Whenever deviations resulted from the unwillingness of some members to ask for assistance, a quick meeting was convened to remind them of their interdependence responsibilities. During the allocation of tasks, interpersonal skills were put in consideration a step that allowed for proper allocation of tasks. I encouraged open communication as well as positive feedbacks as a way of improving relationships among team members. This way, the team had an understanding that discussing problems was healthy for their interdependence. Similarly, as an overall manager, I worked hard to ensure that the teams had the appropriate composition, by carefully considering the skills of each member and the kind of personality that each possessed. After careful consideration, the team members were allocated tasks that matched their profile. On the same note, commitment to the processes of the team and accountability were highly emphasized. Respect for every member was exceedingly regarded and especially on the response towards several individuals who took leadership roles (Wateridge, 2001, p. 191). To ensure effective and efficient implementation of the project activities, elect ronic tools were highly utilized and whenever the tools were not enough for use on a particular task, the available tools were shared. This highly facilitated the process of implementation of the project activities. Project Execution             During the project execution, my vital role was to control the process. At this point, practicing MBWA (management by walking around) was necessary. There were some instances where the project activities carried out by the team members veered from the plan. These deviations resulted from the inability of some members to fully comprehend what is expected of them during certain activities. This was so because of the diversified back grounds of the team members, which prevented them from consulting or asking for assistance. It was thus necessary for me to carry out the proper monitoring role, to match the activities with the plan and to assure quality. To do this, I convened several emergence meetings to remind the team members on their roles as team players. During the completion stage when the project was nearing the close out phase, one of the team members got seek and had to fly back home. Because of the limitation of time, the tasks were allocated to some members of the team. It was unfortunate because the delivery time of the added tasks was late for the reason of failure to understand the tasks. This made it necessary for convening an abrupt meeting to brief the affected members on what is expected of them. For this reason, the delivery of the tasks allocated to the ailing member did not go in accordance with the plan. Team Working and Leadership Cross-cultural Teams             During the initiation stage, the team rules as shown in appendix 2, as well as the roles of every member were developed. To facilitate this, discussions on the cultural dissimilarities that were easily perceivable and their effects on behavior of the members and performance were established. This was geared towards creating an open discussion that inspired mutual trust and obligation (Chung et al., 2013 p. 194). After the discussion, the cultural differences that emanated from understanding the background of every team member helped in developing appropriate ways of addressing the issues accordingly. This was done after knowing where these differences emanated from through assessing the situation from individual member’s perspective. This helped in changing the stereo-typed perceptions and improvement on value-based assumptions. To solve some of the cross-cultural issues that arose during implementation of the setout activities, I as the leader worked hard for reconciliation as opposed to compromising. I thus created new ways of perceiving and settling the differences. This encouraged the combining of strengths among the team members as opposed to picking disagreements. Intensive communications, feedbacks and procedures were highly regarded to minimize the risks involved. Changing Roles             The aspect of changing roles was not utilized so as to facilitate the aspect of specialization in tasks. This worked to our disadvantage when one of the team members go sick and had to fly back home. The tasks were allocated to several team members who had almost similar tasks. Because of inadequacy of specialization on the added tasks, the members delivered the tasks late. This prompted me to convene an impromptu meeting to brief the members on their new added tasks. Because of this reason, the delivery of the tasks was out of time plan. Motivation             To motivate the team members, the contributions made by each were highly regarded every time a scheduled meeting was convened as shown in appendix 3. Similarly, the diverse views of different individuals were encouraged and incorporated in the decisions made after a comprehensive discussion (Wateridge, 2001, p. 161). To motivate the team members, I kept reminding them of their capabilities and how appreciated their contributions were. Also, different needs of individual members were identified for easy fulfillment. When members felt that their needs are catered for and their views are incorporated in making decisions pertaining to the execution of the project activities, they delivered to their capability (Wright, 2002, p. 121). To encourage harmony within the team, I encouraged communication among the members (Malinowski, 2011, p. 234). This served as a way of understanding the problems that different members are experiencing at particular instances. After the communication of the problems, the issues were addressed accordingly to the satisfaction of all members. This guaranteed harmony among the members through free and unrestricted interactions, characterized by free flow of thoughts (Seteroff, 2003, p. 43). This free flow of thoughts and effective communication facilitated generation of new ideas pertaining to the implementation of activities of the project (Marc & Picard, 2000, p. 38). To get most out of the team members, the same technique of free flow of information and welcoming the contribution of every team member was utilized. Leadership Roles and Styles             During the implementation of the project, several individuals took up the role of leadership. The members who became leaders were chosen by the majority of the team members. The act of leading further boosted the confidence of the chosen members towards obtaining the set goals (Pearce & Sims, 2000, p. 131). I had been previously chosen as the overall manager of the project from the start to the end, to oversee the implementation of activities. This was a good experience that educated me on how cross-cultural teams operate .In the process, different leadership styles as discussed below were utilized. Transactional Leadership             The first type of leadership that different members who took leadership roles utilized was transactional leadership (Lowe & Gardner, 2011, p. 460). This style operated on the basic ground that because the team members agreed on the leadership of a particular member, they must obey the directions he or she gives. This type of leadership led to clarification of the roles played by every member of the team. Similarly, the members were expected to follow the agreed upon rules failure to which one would be ejected out of the team. Transformational Leadership             In this leadership, the leader inspired and motivated team members to transform the issue at hand from worst to best (Sashhin, 2004, p. 171). The means of motivation are as discussed above with encouraging individual members on their capabilities, free flow of information and effective communication at the top of the list (Ashkanasy & Tse, 2000, p. 223). The inspiration and motivation given by the team leaders were genuine, a situation that facilitated the implementation of the planned activities. Participative Leadership             This kind of leadership entails the involvement of team members in decision-making process (Langton & Robbins, 2007, p. 389). Through this kind of leadership, the understanding of the underlying issues of implementation by individual members was enhanced. They thus became more committed to the activities of implementation (Pearce, 2007, p. 357). Under this leadership, people became more collaborative as opposed to competitive and worked on joint team goals. Situational Leadership             In this type of leadership, the leader applies the best action depending on the array of factors of the situation at hand (Northouse, 2004, p. 78). This type of leadership is as a result of several forces namely; the circumstances, the followers and the leader. This style focused more on the behaviors adopted by the leader under different situations (Parry & Bryman, 2006, p. 456). The leader with the most excellent ability of making better decisions had an upper hand in applying the style. Conclusion             In conclusion, managing the activities of a project is a long process more so when dealing with cross-cultural teams. It calls for the manager to understand the different backgrounds of these members. This is done through the application of several techniques as such as the understanding of the cultural differences, their cause, how to change the perception to a common goal of the team and how to motivate individual members bearing in mind the aspect of different backgrounds. This way, he or she is able to inspire the followers to make the best team under a common goal of implementing the activities of the project successfully. On the leadership issue, it is vital that the leader understands the best type of leadership to apply on the team members (Osborn et al., 2002, p. 811). Recommendations             After carrying out all the activities of the project, it became necessary to develop some recommendations based on the lessons learnt. The following are the recommendations that I would implement if I was to undertake the project again as the monitor. To reduce the risk involved when engaging members from different cultural backgrounds in a team, it is essential to apply a flexible approach of management that allows for effective communication, reporting and actions on the raised issues. To change project processes so as to accommodate cultural differences, establishing good relationships with key members of the team is a must. This is geared towards winning their trust which in turn helps the project execution process smooth. To effectively implement the activities of the project, the manager is obliged to know what motivates the team members into doing good job, their specific skills and know-how and their respective communication styles. The combination of participative leadership and transformational leadership is the best option in a project implementation. This is so because participative leadership involves the members in decision-making process and hence motivating them. On the other hand, transformational leadership involves the leader inspiring and motivating his followers. References Arbaugh, J. (2007). Introduction: Project Management Education: Emerging Tools, Techniques, and Topics. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 6(4), pp.568-569.Ashkanasy, N. M., & Tse, B. (2000). Transformational leadership as management of emotion: A conceptual review. In N. M. Ashkanasy, C. E. J. Hà ¤rtel & W. J. Zerbe (Eds.). Emotions in the workplace: Research, theory, and practice (pp. 221-235) Chung, J., Wai, Y., Lau, D. and Songip, A. (2013). Teamwork – A Success Factor of Knowledge Management for Faculty Development: A Case Study. International Journal of Information and Education Technology, pp.192-195.Collyer, S. and Warren, C. (2009). Project management approaches for dynamic environments. International Journal of Project Management, 27(4), pp.355-364.Daft, R. and Lane, P. (2005). The leadership experience. Mason, Ohio: Thomson/South-Western. Industrial/organizational psychology (pp.235-278). Klimenko, O. (2014). Complex Project Management: Historical Background, Problems and Approaches, 3(3), pp.4-13. Langton, N., & Robbins, S. (2007). Leadership. In N. Langton & S. Robbins. Organizational behavior: Concepts, controversies, applications Toronto: Prentice Hall, (pp.386-426). Lowe, K. B. &, Gardner, W. L. (2001). The years of the leadership quarterly: Contributions and challenges for the futures. Leadership Quarterly, 11(4), 459–514. Malinowski, M. (2011). Essential project management skills. Project Management Journal, p.n/a-n/a. Marc, E. & Picard, D. (2000). Relations communications inter-personnel [Relationships and interpersonal communications]. Paris: Dunod. Northouse, P. (2004). Leadership. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage. Osborn, R. N., Hunt, J. G., & Jauch, L. R. (2002). Toward a contextual theory of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 13(6), 797-837. Parry, K. W., & Bryman, A. (2006). Leadership in organization. In S. T. Clegg, C. Harry, T. B. Lawrence & W. R. Nord. The Sage handbook of organization studies (pp. 447-468). Pearce, C. L. (2007). The future of leadership development: The importance of identity, multilevel approaches, self-leadership, physical fitness, shared leadership, networking, creativity, emotions, spirituality and on-boarding processes. Human Resource Management Review, 17(4), 355-359.Pearce, C. L., & Sims, H. P. (2000). Shared leadership: Toward a multi-level theory of leadership, Advances in Interdisciplinary Studies of Work Teams, 7, 115-139. Sashhin, M. (2004). Transformational leadership approaches: A review and synthesis. In J. Antonakis, A. T. Cianciolo & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.). p. 171 Scarnati, J. (2001). On becoming a team player. Team Performance Management: An International Journal, 7(1/2), pp.5-10. Schneider, S. and Barsoux, J. (2003). Managing across cultures. Harlow, England: Financial Times Prentice Hall. Seteroff, S. S. (2003). Beyond leadership to followership. Victoria: Trafford. Stewart, B. and Powell, S. (2004). Team building and team working. Team Performance Management: An International Journal, 10(1/2), pp.35-38. Symonds, M. (2014). Managing Cross-cultural Project Teams. Leadershipwatch. [online] Available at: http://blog.parallelprojecttraining.com/project-management-articles/managing-cross-cultural-project-teams/ [Accessed 29 Nov. 2014]. Wateridge, J. (2001). Successful Project Management. International Journal of Project Management, 19(3), p.191. Wojciech Macek, W. (2011). Methodologies of Project Management. Contemporary Economics, 4(4), p.121. Wright, J. (2002). Effective Project Management. International Journal of Project Management, 20(8), p.633. Xie, H. and Zhang, A. (2013). Approaches and Processes of the Project Management. AMR, 790, pp.724-727. Source document

The Impact of Tax Havens on Business Decision-making The WritePass Journal

The Impact of Tax Havens on Business Decision-making   Introduction The Impact of Tax Havens on Business Decision-making   IntroductionCharacteristics of Tax HavensThe Role of Tax Havens in International Market  Practical Uses of Tax HavensConclusionReferencesRelated   Introduction OECD’s initiatives have exemplified that tax havens have attracted more and more attention in recent years (OECD, 1998, 2000, 2004). Compared with nonhaven countries, tax havens have lower levels of corruption, better political and legal systems, and that they could defer or reduce tax liabilities to other countries through strategic use of debt among subsidiaries or transfer prices strategy. A 100% owned abroad subsidiary of a multinational company (MNC) can manipulate their interests, management fees, transfer prices and royalties charges, which can cause the subsidiary to avoid some tax payments in home country. Generally, a MNC could minimize taxable income arising in high tax countries, increase investments in low tax countries to reduce the average tax rate on their profits, or in order to delay the investment income from high tax jurisdictions, they could keep these earnings in a very low-tax country before they are used (Miller and Oats, 2009). If firms can get low tax rates abroad, they may not bring the money back to their home countries which have high tax rate, as a result, when the MNC recycles its foreign profits arising abroad, these earnings could be exempted from being retained earnings or foreign borrowings. Tax havens could be used as a means to protect portfolio gains from foreign direct investment profits. This is mainly because the infrastructure in tax havens is much more suitable to mobile portfolio income. This paper through analyzing three aspects of tax havens: its characteristics; its role in international market; the practical uses, mainly explains the impact of tax havens on business decision-making. Characteristics of Tax Havens Actually, the definition of tax havens still hasn’t been defined standard. Typically, in tax havens foreign investors can enjoy very favorable tax regimes, such as low or nil withholding tax rates or corporate tax rates on all or certain categories of income. In recent years, although the national tax group shares more and more kinds of information, another feature of tax havens bank or commercial secrecy laws is still very significant. Tax havens are low-tax jurisdictions, and in these areas investors have opportunities to get tax avoidance. No matter in what shape or form of tax havens, these countries and jurisdictions try to gain competitive advantages in commercial competitions through their particular tax systems. These tax havens are often recognized as offshore financial centers, which usually means â€Å"any shifting of funds out of the country of taxpayer residence for tax planning or tax evasion purposes† (Miller and Oats, 2009, p226). In offshore financial centers transactions with non-residents often exceed the related domestic transactions to a large extend (Dixon 2001, as cited in Miller and Oats, 2009, p225). These offshore financial centers normally have favorable regulatory system, legal environment and tax regime; MNCs perhaps adopt new financial products quickly and flexibly in the favorable legal environment. Dharmapala and Hines (2006) illustrate some characteristics of tax havens compared with nonhavens. In general, tax havens countries or territories are virtually wealthier than nonhavens. They usually have smaller population size, and their geographical characteristics are more likely to be islands with scarce natural resources, which can easily lead to economic openness. They also have substantial differences from nonhavens in legal origins and political institutions. Typically, tax havens have stronger governance institutions than comparable non-haven countries, and they are more likely to be dependent territories, have better legal and political systems. The examples of tax havens jurisdictions include Hong Kong and Singapore in Asia, Luxembourg and Ireland in Europe, and some Caribbean island nations in the Americas, and that within some countries there are also low-tax jurisdictions, for example special economic regions in China. The Gordon Report, prepared for the US Treasury in 1981, states some more characteristics of tax havens. Income and capital in tax havens countries usually can get lower or zero tax rate and banking or commercial secrecy provides some opportunities to tax avoidance and/or tax evasion. There is no exchange control, but it provides a provision of offshore banking facilities. Additionally, tax havens often have good communication facilities and political stability; they can provide an opportunity for multilateral tax planning. Foreign capital in these countries can get favorable disposition; professional advisers are always available for foreign investors. Furthermore, their convenient locations and decent communications climates, especially the freedom from excessive regulations,  Ã‚   The Role of Tax Havens in International Market There is a traditional â€Å"negative† view that tax havens play a disproportionate role in the world’s foreign direct investment (FDI) (Slemrod and Wilson, 2006), however, an emerging â€Å"positive† opinion of havens implies that their existence may not make high-tax countries get worse (Hines, 2006, 2007; Hong and Smart, 2007). High-tax countries may tax immobile firms more heavily, but tax havens impose lower tax rates on highly mobile firms. Given all other considerations equal, tax policies can affect MNCs’ FDI; lower tax rates could increase after-tax returns, thereby increasing investment funds. Generally, tax havens don’t have the responsibilities to provide the same function for all MNCs. The larger tax haven jurisdictions are (given the sizes of local economies), the greater opportunities taxpayers have to locate taxable profits. The same investment activities in countries with different tax rates may get very different opportunities for tax avoidance. MNCs can achieve tax avoidance in various manners, such as intrafirm trade, dividend repatriations, royalty payments, and intrafirm debt. Many enterprises use transfer prices within business transactions to reduce their overall tax burden, in fact, this approach is being widely suspected. MNCs typically can obtain certain benefits from allowing affiliates in high-tax countries to reduce the prices of goods and services provided to affiliates in low-tax countries. Transfer prices may be paid by groups not related to these transactions, however, when pricing issues relate to some special proprietary and differentiation provisions, this situation is getting to be quite complicated. Because of some legal looseness firms completely can adjust transfer prices without violating any laws. According to Hines and Rice (1994), tax havens can be used by MNCs to gain profits away from high-tax countries, but can also help to repatriate taxes from activities in low-tax jurisdictions. For mitigating double taxation a country can provide some credits to MNCs and use deferral policies before profits are repatriated. As a result, this approach may increase this country’s tax liabilities when repatriating profits earned in low-tax jurisdictions. Altshuler and Grubert (2003) state that through kinds of ownership arrangements tax havens can make deferral of repatriation taxes available.   Practical Uses of Tax Havens A former employee of a Liechtenstein bank sold business information to Germany’s tax authorities, in February 2008 this international scandal was exposed. This news made some German residents being prosecuted for tax evasion, and meanwhile it attracted tax havens’ more attention on tax evasion issues, because some individuals use tax havens to avoid home country taxes illegally. Countries with income tax systems tax their residents’ overseas earnings, such as the interest, dividends and capital gains, whereas tax payers can evade these taxes because of some loopholds in bank secrecy laws. If foreign individuals don’t report their income arising in tax havens countries to their home country, their home country won’t know this income, because bank secrecy in tax haven countries will not provide information about these earnings to home country (Desai, Foley and Hines, 2004). As a general matter, individuals’ use of havens can be evaluated by foreign portfolio investment (FPI). International portfolio diversification provides insurance against the economic risks from investor’s home country, so investors can get substantial gains (French and Poterba, 1991). Investors have many nontax advantages for international diversification in tax havens, whereas they have to spend some efficiency costs on the benefits of FPI. For the purpose of evasion more and more investors locate their portfolios abroad, however, the issues of fairness and confidence in the tax system is undermined (Desai, Foley and Hines, 2006a). The costs caused by individuals’ use of tax havens largely depend on the degree of tax evasion. Some significant amounts of revenues are lost by countries as a result of illegal tax evasion through havens. Firms also invest large amounts in tax havens, but the firms using of havens may be quite different from individuals. The firms, which prefer to operate in tax havens, are most active abroad, technology-intensive and with extensive intrafirm trade, and these firms always are large MNCs. In order to get tax avoidance in tax haven operations, these firms could allocate taxable income away from high-tax jurisdictions. In larger tax haven jurisdictions the firms primarily reallocate taxable income, whereas in smaller tax haven countries the primary use of these firms is to facilitate deferral of home country taxation of foreign income. If a tax haven operation could generate a 1.5 to two percent greater sales and investment growth, in non-haven countries it’s only one percent greater likelihood (Desai, Foley and Hines, 2006b). Generally, these firms are not seeking to evade home country corporate taxes; they use tax havens for getting tax planning activities and tax avoidance lega lly. MNCs can use havens to defer or reduce their tax liabilities to other governments. Most nonhaven countries have two approaches to taxing their resident corporations’ overseas income: a â€Å"worldwide† system (used by the US, the UK and Japan) provides a foreign tax credit (FTC) for taxes paid to foreign governments to avoid the double taxation; a â€Å"territorial† system (used by most capital exporting countries, such as Germany and the Netherlands) exempts abroad income from home country taxation (Hong and Smart, 2007). For MNCs in territorial countries, income from the home country or some other high-tax country could be reallocated to a tax haven. Actually, a worldwide system is not pure, for example the US allows the taxation of overseas earnings to be deferred until these earnings are â€Å"repatriated† to the US. Moreover, the tax paid to the tax haven government is low or nil, thus, MNCs based in countries prefer to use tax havens to reduce or def er their tax liabilities, and they can use of debt among affiliates and transfer pricing to achieve this aim. When subsidiaries of a MNC trade between themselves, the prices they used can affect the allocation of the MNCs’ income within different jurisdictions. Governments generally ask firms to use â€Å"arm’s-length† prices; however, arm’s-length markets may don’t exist for some transactions. Take intellectual property for example, subsidiaries of same MNC can choose the place to locate research and development activities in order to attract other subsidiaries’ royalty payments into lower-tax countries; or MNCs can also have affiliates in tax havens lend to affiliates in high-tax jurisdictions. This â€Å"interest stripping† or â€Å"earnings stripping† generates interest deductions in high-tax jurisdictions and makes interest payments flowing towards low-tax jurisdictions (Desai and Dharmapala, 2006). Though governments impose some restrictions on capital structure to restrict this situation, apparently it’s less successful. Conclusion In many countries the governments make policies to reduce the tax burden of their residents, but they cannot make people avoid taxes totally. If the exemption method of taxation is used simply, the residents may pay nothing on their income arising in a tax heaven country. Thus, there is a limited relief on the income from tax haven countries. The firms in tax haven countries could reallocate taxable income earned in high-tax jurisdictions and defer repatriation taxes on income from low-tax jurisdictions. Operations of MNCs in tax haven countries can be treated as part of their international tax avoidance strategies. Tax havens usually attract MNCs to establish affiliates there, and high RD industries and intrafirm trades with large volumes prefer to invest there as well. Presumably, larger tax haven countries are likely more suitable for subsidiaries to reallocate income, and to reflect the effects of transfer pricing enforcement. Apparently, firms investing abroad at faster rates ar e more likely to establish new tax haven operations to avoid taxes. References Altshuler, R. and Harry, G. (2003) Repatriation taxes, repatriation strategies and multinational financial policy. Journal of Public Economics, 87 (73)-107 Desai, M. A., Foley, C. F. and Hines, J. R., Jr. (2004) Economic Effects of Regional Tax Havens. NBER Working Paper, No. 10806 Desai, M. A., Foley, C. F. and Hines, J. R., Jr. (2006a) The Demand for Tax Haven Operations. Journal of Public Economics, 90: 513-531 Desai, M. A., Foley, C. F. and Hines, J. R., Jr. (2006b) Do Tax Havens Divert Economic Activity?. Economics Letters, 90: 219-224 Desai, M. A. and Dharmapala, D. (2006) Corporate Tax Avoidance and High Powered Incentives. Journal of Financial Economics, 79: 145-179 Dharmapala, D. and Hines, J. R., Jr. (2006) Which Countries Become Tax Havens?. NBER Working Paper, NO. 12802 French, K. R. and Poterba, J. M. (1991) Investor Diversification and International Equity Markets. American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings, 81: 222-226 Hines, J. R., Jr. and Rice, E. M. (1994) Fiscal Paradise: Foreign Tax Havens and American Business. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 109: 149-182 Hines, J. R., Jr. (2006) Will Social Welfare Expenditures Survive Tax Competition?. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 22: 330-348 Hines, J. R., Jr. (2007) â€Å"Corporate Taxation and International Competition† In A. J. Auerbach, Hines, J.R., Jr. and Slemrod, J. (eds.) Taxing Corporate Income in the 21st Century. UK: Cambridge University Press. Hong, Q. and Smart, M. (2007) In Praise of Tax Havens: International Tax Planning and Foreign Direct Investment. CESIfo Working Paper, No. 1942 Miller, A. and Oats, L. (2009) Principles of International Taxation. 2nded. UK: Tottel Publishing, Haywards Heath. pp. 225-229 OECD (1998) Harmful Tax Competition: An Emerging Global Issue.Paris: OECD OECD (2000) Towards Global Tax Cooperation: Progress in Identifying and Eliminating Harmful Tax Practices. Paris: OECD. OECD (2004) The OECD’s Project on Harmful Tax Practices: The 2004 Progress Report. Paris: OECD. Slemrod, J. and Wilson, J. D. (2006) Tax Competition with Parasitic Tax Havens. NBER Working Paper, No. 1225

Schools socio-cultural goals for students

Schools socio-cultural goals for students Preventing moral failure in academic institutions appears highly dependent on the morality and ethics of its leaders and teaching staff. Hashtag: #Scandal School’s Socio-Cultural Goals for Students Scandals normally occur when somebody got involved in an act or event that is morally or legally wrong. However, the impact of scandalous acts is commonly far greater when it involves public figures and educational institutions that are supposed to model good virtues or morally acceptable behavior and attitudes in young people. School-related scandals such as physical abuse of students by a high school teacher, sex between a female teacher and underage boy-students, racism, misused of funds by school officials, and others were violations of ethical guidelines and codes professional conduct that eventually hinders achievement of school’s socio-cultural goals for students. The outbreak of school sex scandals involving female teachers and young students in the media not only triggered public controversy but raised questions and heated debate over the ethics and professional conduct of female teachers. A social researcher, for instance, assumed that although teachers involved in these scandals clearly crossed the line of what constitutes a morally acceptable practice; they are not actually at fault engaging in a male-female sexual relationship. Feminist educators, on the other hand, argues that such relationship will never occur if these female teachers value professionalism and committed to ethical teaching practices. Moreover, aside from being unprofessional, sex between teachers and students upset the learning environment and reduced public confidence in the ability of the academic institution to provide moral education. The Limits of Academic Freedom Trust according to literature is key to successful relationship thus schools with moral and ethical leaders and staff are more successful than others in establishing a moral purpose, building a caring and consistent long-term relationship with the community. Role of Ethical Educators in Preventing Moral Failures Preventing moral failure in academic institutions appears highly dependent on the morality and ethics of its leaders and teaching staff. The reason is that leaders and teachers are individuals students will look up to as an example of decent people. For instance, students will likely trust, respect, and emulate teachers making correct and consistent ethical decisions and judgments. In contrast, since decisions in school are made in absolutes, erroneous ethical decisions and judgments often result to immoral, unethical, and sinful decisions with major consequences. Teachers are humans who from time to time make an error. However, there is absolutely no excuse for making moral mistakes such as a teacher having sex with students, school principal stealing money from school funds, a teacher accepting a bribe, and others. Years ago, Bill Clinton’s presidency was damaged by his immoral actions against Monica Lewinsky and failure of the moral purpose of his political position. Similarly, a male teacher raising test score of a female student for sex is a moral and ethical dilemma destructive of the moral purpose of a school. It is, therefore, important for schools to employ ethical educators who practice what they preach and make moral decisions based on conscience and moral doctrine supporting the socio-cultural goals of schools for students. Moral failures in teachers can be avoided by understanding oneself, reflecting on experiences, moral and ethical values, and developing their own personalized code of ethics. This is because moral failure is often caused by the  competing interest, overload and pressures at work, excessive relationship with students, and error in judgment.

Of Mice And Men †John Steinbeck

Of Mice And Men – John Steinbeck Free Online Research Papers The classic American novel Of Mice and Men is a great example of allusion to another author’s work. Allusion is where an author refers to another work or existed work of literature in their work. John Steinbeck is the author of the novel Of Mice and Men, and in this novel he alludes to Robert Burns’ poem To A Mouse. In To A Mouse it shows how schemes, or plans, of mice and men often go awry. Steinbeck uses this in his title of his American novel. In the novel Of Mice and Men all of the main characters in the storyline have dreams or goals they want to accomplish throughout their life. The character named George has a great example of a dream or goal to accomplish. George wants to get a patch of his own land, because he does not like living in a bunkhouse on a farm. Like every other characters dream in Steinbeck’s novel, it goes awry, or wrong. The determined, mean, and little boxer named Curly has an ambitious dream of being a boxer. After getting into a fight in the bunkhouse, Curly hears Lennie laughing. Assuming Lennie is laughing at him, he picks a fight and starts hitting Lennie. Lennie ends up crushing Curly’s hand, crushing his dream of becoming a boxer. Crooks is a black, crippled old fellow. He lives in the stables by the farm animals, showing how he is looked upon in society back then. Crooks was nothing better than a farm animal, and he just wants to be equal. His dream of being equal goes awry when Curly’s tart wife threatens him with her superiority as a woman, and the things she could say. Curly’s wife wants to be a great actress in the movies. She tells Lennie that she is tired of being with Curly and wants to get out of the bunkhouse sometime. Curly’s wife then starts showing off her shiny, soft hair to Lennie as they are talking. Curly’s wife eventually gets her neck snapped when Lennie will not let go of her hair, thus her dream of being in the movies, obviously, is not going to come true. All of these characters play a role in the theme of the book. Most of the characters, if not all of them are misfits. Every one of the characters has dreams; every single one of them goes awry. Lennie Small is a fascinating character. He is no where near small, and cannot control his need to feel or pet soft items or people. Lennie, at the end of the novel, is put out of his misery and suffering just like Candy’s dog. Candy’s dog was old and getting worn out, with a dream to be young and live again. Why would Candy want the poor dog to suffer? George had this problem with Lennie. Why would George want Lennie to suffer the consequences of his actions when he does not know what he did was wrong. After all, Curly would just want him lynched like a misfit on a tree. George cannot let Lennie endure this pain and agony. Just like the dog, Lennie was put out of his life with Carlson’s luger. Lennie’s dream of tending the rabbits and having land went awry when he was shot. No more soft, furry rabbits for Lennie. The settings found throughout Steinbeck’s Of Mice and Men novel play a significant role to the plot. One of the settings is a pool of water surrounded by brush. This is where George tells Lennie to hide if he is ever in any trouble. The brush is also where Lennie’s dream of tending little rabbits goes awry, when he is shot with Carlson’s luger by George. The bunkhouse is like the farm pub. Everyone is introduced to George and Lennie here. The bunkhouse is also George and Lennie’s living quarter throughout this American novel. Inside this strange place, the character’s personalities and dreams are revealed. The barn is a sign of animalistic qualities in the storyline. Crooks lives like a farm animal in this barn. Curly’s wife has her neck brutally snapped by Lennie’s paws. Steinbeck often refers to Lennie’s hand as paws, showing the animalistic quality of Lennie and his actions. Foreshadowing is an element most authors use in their novels or stories. Steinbeck’s Of Mice and Men is no exception. Steinbeck uses multiple foreshadowing events in his novel. The first foreshadowing I noticed was that Lennie liked to pet soft things, such as a girl’s dress. George early on in the book asks Lennie about what is in his pocket. After a little argument, Lennie reveals a little dead rabbit in his pocket. The first foreshadowing event leads up to the next. If Lennie ever gets into trouble, George tells him to go to the brush by the pool, foreshadowing Lennie’s ultimate death. Carlson’s luger is the next foreshadowing event. Carlson is always cleaning his precious piece of metal and showing it off to the other residents of the bunkhouse. This luger, or gun, ends up being one of the causes for Lennie’s dream to go awry and the death of Candy’s dog. Of Mice and Men includes numerous items that make it a good novel, and an American classic. It includes allusion, foreshadowing, and it ultimately teaches us a lesson. Not all of your dreams in life come true, and most go wrong. Just like George, Lennie, Curly, and Candy, our dreams too will go awry in our lifetime. Research Papers on "Of Mice And Men" - John SteinbeckMind TravelThe Fifth HorsemanHonest Iagos Truth through DeceptionWhere Wild and West MeetHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows Essay19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenHip-Hop is ArtThe Masque of the Red Death Room meaningsCapital Punishment

Criminology Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Criminology - Term Paper Example For example, in urban areas and places that are associated with low living standards, the crime rate is usually higher (67). Also worth noticing is the fact that there are crimes that are common while others are less common. Some of the most common crimes in almost every society include burglary, robbery, murder and rape (61). Crime victims in every country do not necessarily have common characteristics. What this means is that people across the economic scale can become victims to crime. Those who reside in poor neighborhoods are however more likely to become victims of crime compared to those in rich neighborhoods. With technological developments and the introduction of the internet, crime has gotten to cut across boundaries like never before as evidenced the crimes such as synthetic ID theft, hackings and viral attacks. Organizations like individuals also fall victim to criminals. From the analysis above, it is beyond doubt that crime knows no bounds and anyone can become a victim of crime. 2A. There are several myths about crime in the United States of America. One such myth is in regard to the prevalence of crime in the country over other countries. Given the size of the US and its high population, it is a common belief that the country has a higher crime rate compared to other countries including England, Canada, Italy, Netherlands, Sweden and Australia. This may however not be the truth considering that the International Crime Victims’ Survey reveals otherwise. Yet another myth about crime in the US is pegged on the belief that criminals specialize in their activities. In this respect, it is often assumed that sex offenders, for example, only commit crimes that are related to sex and not other crimes (79). This again is against what past research conducted by criminologists reveal. The media and the political discourse has made such myths appear true by giving greater attention to crime and compared to other news. Terrorism has for example receive d a great share of media and political attention following the 9/11 attacks. Yet again, it is beyond doubt that in some cases the media and politicians misrepresent facts related to crime and criminal activities as they make their presentation not based on solid evidence but on flawed perceptions (62). Given the attention and misrepresentation of crimes by the media and politicians, policy makers tend to make flawed decisions. For example, policy makes, like the general public often believe against the truth that criminals such as sex offenders specialize (79). When policy makers make decisions based on such flawed assumptions, the policies that they make often become ineffective when it comes to crime prevention and rehabilitation of criminals (79). 4B. Several studies have highlighted the changing nature of crime over time. While there are crimes that have previously been termed as common, this term may no longer be accurate in application. This is so considering that cybercrime, terrorism and sexual offenses which were less prevalent in the past have become almost as prevalent as robbery, burglary and murder in recent times. One main crime that has been subject to change in the US is homicide. The last two centuries have seen a fluctuation in the prevalence of this type of crime (116). The socio-economic environment of a place is known to be one of the factors that affect the prevalence of crime. In the early

Politics of development Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Politics of development - Article Example Globalization reduces rather than contributes to inequalities giving low developed nations a chance to progress and grow, acquire new technologies and innovations in all spheres of life. Globalization has both positive and negative impact on the third world countries identified by the development stage and economic possibilities. For the third world countries, positive effects of globalization involve free trade and integrated economic relations, low barriers to trade and cultural communication, political unity and easy travel, technology transfer and labor turnover. Governments take measures to make their economies more or less attractive to global investors. In addition, nation-states have retained control over education, infrastructure, and, most importantly, population movements. Indeed, immigration control, together with population registration and monitoring, has often been cited as the most notable exception to the general trend towards global integration. (Friedman 2000). Although only 2% of the world's population live outside their country of origin, immigration control has become a central issue in most advanced nations. Many governments seek to restrict population flows, particularly those originating in the poor countries of the global South. Even in the United States, annual inflows of about 600 ,000 immigrants during the 1990s reached only half the levels recorded during the first two decades of the 20th century (Stiglitz 2002). Finally, the series of drastic national security measures that were implemented worldwide as a response to the terrorist attacks of 9/11 reflect political dynamics that run counter to the hyper-globalizers' predictions of a borderless world. Some civil rights advocates even fear that the enormous resurgence of patriotism around the world might enable states to re-impose restrictions on the freedom of movement and assembly (Wade et al 2006). At the same time, however, the activities of global terrorist networks have revealed the inadequacy of conventional national security structures based on the modern nation-state system, thus forcing national governments to engage in new forms of international cooperation (Hirst and Thompson 1999). Following Stiglitz (2002): "Globalization can further be defined as the arrival of 'self-generating capital' at the global level: that is, capital as capital, capital in the form of the TNC, free of national loyalties, controls, and interests. This is different from the mere internationalization of capital, which assumes a world of national capitals and nation states; it is the supersession by capital of the nation state (p. 10). At the outset of the 21st century, the world finds itself in a transitional phase between the modern nation-state system and postmodern forms of global governance (Yip 1995). Regional clubs and agencies have sprung up across the world, leading some observers to speculate that they will eventually replace nation-states as the basic unit of governance. Starting out as attempts to integrate regional economies, these regional blocs have, in some cases, already evolved into loose political federations with common institutions of governance. On a global level, governments have formed a number of international organizations, including the UN, NATO,

The United States 5th Marine Regiment WWI-WWII Research Paper

The United States 5th Marine Regiment WWI-WWII - Research Paper Example Major General Commandant of the Marine Corps, George Barnett, was well aware of these shortcomings. Barnett, who also enjoyed prominent social and political connections in Washington, was desperate for participation of the Marines in the ongoing war in France to overcome those flaws. He sought reorganization of the scattered small detachments into more structured battalions and regiments. Due to his incessant efforts and determination, President Woodrow Wilson directed the Secretary of War on May 29, â€Å"In pursuance of the authority vested in me by law, it is hereby directed that you issue the necessary orders detaching for service for the Army a force of Marines to be known as the Fifth Regiment of Marines† (Camp, 26). Commandant Barnett assembled Marine detachments scattered across United States and Caribbean into the 5th Marine Regiment with battalions at Philadelphia and Quantico, which was officially activated on June 08, 1917. On June 14, the regiment, under the comma nd of Colonel Charles A. Doyen, USMC, started sail towards France on the escort fleet comprising four groups. The first groups embarked in naval transports such as HENDERSON and DE KALB sailed on the same day. However, the last group including HANCOCK sailed three days later. The first groups also encountered submarines on the way, but were not hit. The regiment arrived at harbor of St. Nazaire, France, on June 26, where it was assigned to the 1st Division, American Expeditionary Force, under the command of Major General John J. Pershing, USA. The 5th Regiment was the first marine regiment having the honor to serve with the Army in Europe (McClellan, 30-32). Pershing did not keep the regiment intact. Many of the regiment’s units were deployed as line of communication troops performing non-combat duties, which spread dismay among men and hampered the training. In words of the 2nd Battalion Commander, Major Frederick M. Wise, USMC, â€Å"We were pretty badly split up †¦ O ne battalion in St. Nazaire, half a battalion in England, and my battalion a few miles from Menacourt† (Camp, 32). Training of some elements was conducted as part of the First Division (regulars) in the Gondrecourt training area. However, it was soon realized that 1st Infantry Division already contained its full complement of four regiments. The regiment was thus reassigned to Fourth Infantry Brigade under the 2nd Division. From September onwards, the available units of the Fourth Brigade as a unit of the Second Division of Regulars started training in the Bourmont training area (McClellan, 31). The Fourth Brigade of Marines was composed of the 5th Marine Regiment, the 6th Marine Regiment, and the 6th Machine Gun Battalion. After his promotion to Brigadier General, Col. Doyen became the first commanding general of the 2nd Division on October 26th, 1917. The command of the 5th Regiment was temporarily handed over to Lieut. Col. Hiram I. Bearss, USMC, until Col. Wendell C. Nevil le, USMC, reported on duty on January 01, 1918. The 5th Regiment consisted of three battalions containing four companies each, the 84h Machine Gun Company, Supply Company and Headquarters Company. The 1st Battalion commanded by Major Julius Turrill, USMC, was comprised of 17th, 49th, 66th and 67th companies, the Second Battalion commanded by Major Frederick Wise, was comprised of 18th, 43rd, 51st and 55th companies, and the 3rd Battalion command

Nietzsche's Genealogy of Morals Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Nietzsche's Genealogy of Morals - Essay Example It makes me think of my own self and ponder on how much have I been true or sincere in relation to the nature I am. Nevertheless, I could not see how this applies in the way Nietzsche tries to make sense of his position in defining the ‘good’ by detailing where this ‘good’ is coming from and what it is fundamentally composed of. Perhaps there is an enlightening aspect of studying the points raised by Nietzsche in the first essay so as to arrive at learning his theory with appreciation, unfortunately, I am disposed to conclude that his ethics of the ‘good’ is not rooted in deep understanding of intrinsic human values. Human values that are inherent to us, I believe, are those based on humanity or bearing the elements of compassion or empathic virtue, but instead of establishing the foundation for his school of thought on this perspective, Nietzsche seems to choose being racial, external, and superficial in his judgment of the ‘good’. He expresses profound conviction that â€Å"everywhere ‘noble’ or ‘aristocratic’ in a social sense is the fundamental idea out of which ‘good’ in the sense of ‘spiritually noble’, ‘aristocratic’, ‘spiritually high-minded’, ‘spiritually privileged’ necessarily dev elop – a process which always runs in parallel with that other one which finally transforms ‘common’, ‘vulgar’, and ‘low’ into the concept ‘bad’†. Nietzsche is in great belief that those in power or of natural royal descent comprise the real â€Å"good† for their ethic noble is derived from self-affirmation and it is this self-affirmation that provides them the strength to actualize a positive character. Their aristocratic traits enable them to repel or drive away adversaries so that according to Nietzsche, they ought to exemplify the â€Å"good†. However, Nietzsche fails to elaborate from the physical to the inner self of what he considers as ‘noble’ that I feel the need to ask, what if these strong

Christian Bale Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Christian Bale - Movie Review Example It was no wonder hen, that Bale himself soon followed in the family footsteps. His father was fond of travelling, and the family moved excessively form place to place during bale's childhood (Tiscali 2008). This gave Bale exposure to many different interests and opportunities that developed his passion about acting. His first major break was Steven Spielberg's Empire of the Sun in 1987 when he was still a child actor (Tiscali 2008). This was followed by a little rough career patch before becoming a hit in Little Women (Tiscali 2008). As a child, his initial screen and stage appearances include "a part in a Pac-Man cereal commercial, a Lenor ad, and a West End stage debut" (Tiscali 2008). He was also a part of a theatre group at Reading (Tiscali 2008). The focus film for my presentation is the The Machinist, which would be discussed in a greater detail than the other two films under discussion, to examine the extremes to which Christian Bale pushes himself, "both physically and mentally" (LA Weekly 2007), in order to completely lose himself in the character (LA Weekly 2007) and bring... He was also a part of a theatre group at Reading (Tiscali 2008). The Machinist The focus film for my presentation is the The Machinist, which would be discussed in a greater detail than the other two films under discussion, to examine the extremes to which Christian Bale pushes himself, "both physically and mentally" (LA Weekly 2007), in order to completely lose himself in the character (LA Weekly 2007) and bring belief and life to his roles. Background: Ever since he was a child, Bale loved role-playing (LA Weekly 2007). More importantly, he was keen on taking his roles and make-belief games very seriously and was insistent that others do the same; not take fantasy as fantasy, but take it as fiction (LA Weekly 2007). This is the attitude that has kept him going in the filed of acting, where he his dedication to his roles and his extreme impersonation of the script characters has etched a glowing mark for him with the critics and the audiences alike. His father was a traveler and an adventurer (LA Weekly 2007), and this has instilled in him a sense of adventure and self-exploration that he brings to his acting and his roles, and pushes his limits beyond what other people would dare to go to achieve that level of satisfaction and excitement that is a major part of his career as well as his personal life. Discussion: The Machinist was directed by Brad Anderson (The Independent Online Edition- CB.net 2005). It was released in 2005

Experience of Illness and Disability Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Experience of Illness and Disability - Essay Example This study analyses Michael’s case, where interview reveals a number of social perspectives on his view regarding health. Through drawing from literature concepts and critically analysing the case study, specific aspects that will be covered are the lay health beliefs, illness behaviour, social support and practitioner-client interaction as they gradually progress in Michael’s illness narrative. The guiding thesis for this study is that a sociological viewpoint is pivotal in establishing the experience of illness and thus determining health outcomes. Studying lay health beliefs is critical to the healthcare industry due to a number of reasons; it helps understand practitioner-client relationships; it aids design of effective health education programs; most of healthcare work is carried out by lay people in terms of self-care or friend-family care (Nettleton 2006, pp. 35-36). Lay ideas and concepts about health are socially mediated and vary according to several considerations including time, social location, cultural contexts and socio-economic conditions. There appears to be points of divergences and convergences between expert knowledge and lay beliefs about explanations and definitions of health, health behaviour and the relationship between health maintenance and disease prevention (36). According to Gabe, Bury and Elston (2004, pp. 135-136), individual beliefs about illness, health and healthcare are vital in establishing illness behaviour such as non-compliance and the decision to visit a physician among others. Such belie fs are shaped by broader cultural and social factors that are also context dependent, influencing the actions taken by the individual for instance through the lay referral system where individuals consult family and friends about visiting a doctor (67). Besides, lay beliefs about health influence individual lifestyles and risks that have a bearing on such individuals’ health and

Nietzsche's Genealogy of Morals Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Nietzsche's Genealogy of Morals - Essay Example It makes me think of my own self and ponder on how much have I been true or sincere in relation to the nature I am. Nevertheless, I could not see how this applies in the way Nietzsche tries to make sense of his position in defining the ‘good’ by detailing where this ‘good’ is coming from and what it is fundamentally composed of. Perhaps there is an enlightening aspect of studying the points raised by Nietzsche in the first essay so as to arrive at learning his theory with appreciation, unfortunately, I am disposed to conclude that his ethics of the ‘good’ is not rooted in deep understanding of intrinsic human values. Human values that are inherent to us, I believe, are those based on humanity or bearing the elements of compassion or empathic virtue, but instead of establishing the foundation for his school of thought on this perspective, Nietzsche seems to choose being racial, external, and superficial in his judgment of the ‘good’. He expresses profound conviction that â€Å"everywhere ‘noble’ or ‘aristocratic’ in a social sense is the fundamental idea out of which ‘good’ in the sense of ‘spiritually noble’, ‘aristocratic’, ‘spiritually high-minded’, ‘spiritually privileged’ necessarily dev elop – a process which always runs in parallel with that other one which finally transforms ‘common’, ‘vulgar’, and ‘low’ into the concept ‘bad’†. Nietzsche is in great belief that those in power or of natural royal descent comprise the real â€Å"good† for their ethic noble is derived from self-affirmation and it is this self-affirmation that provides them the strength to actualize a positive character. Their aristocratic traits enable them to repel or drive away adversaries so that according to Nietzsche, they ought to exemplify the â€Å"good†. However, Nietzsche fails to elaborate from the physical to the inner self of what he considers as ‘noble’ that I feel the need to ask, what if these strong

Experience of Illness and Disability Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Experience of Illness and Disability - Essay Example This study analyses Michael’s case, where interview reveals a number of social perspectives on his view regarding health. Through drawing from literature concepts and critically analysing the case study, specific aspects that will be covered are the lay health beliefs, illness behaviour, social support and practitioner-client interaction as they gradually progress in Michael’s illness narrative. The guiding thesis for this study is that a sociological viewpoint is pivotal in establishing the experience of illness and thus determining health outcomes. Studying lay health beliefs is critical to the healthcare industry due to a number of reasons; it helps understand practitioner-client relationships; it aids design of effective health education programs; most of healthcare work is carried out by lay people in terms of self-care or friend-family care (Nettleton 2006, pp. 35-36). Lay ideas and concepts about health are socially mediated and vary according to several considerations including time, social location, cultural contexts and socio-economic conditions. There appears to be points of divergences and convergences between expert knowledge and lay beliefs about explanations and definitions of health, health behaviour and the relationship between health maintenance and disease prevention (36). According to Gabe, Bury and Elston (2004, pp. 135-136), individual beliefs about illness, health and healthcare are vital in establishing illness behaviour such as non-compliance and the decision to visit a physician among others. Such belie fs are shaped by broader cultural and social factors that are also context dependent, influencing the actions taken by the individual for instance through the lay referral system where individuals consult family and friends about visiting a doctor (67). Besides, lay beliefs about health influence individual lifestyles and risks that have a bearing on such individuals’ health and